The Mughal architecture flourished in the Indian subcontinent during the Mughal rule (1526-1857). It was a combination of Indo, Islamic and Persian style of art. This new style combined elements of Islamic art and architecture, which had been introduced to India during days of Sultanate of Delhi, with features of Persian art and architecture.

The Mughals built magnificent forts, palaces, gates, public buildings, mosques, water tanks and many more buildings. The use of running water in their palaces and pleasure resorts was a special feature of the Mughals. The Mughal Gardens introduced by Babur to India was used extensively used to decorate the surrounding of these buildings.

Akbar was the first Mughal ruler who undertook constructions on a large scale and the first great Mughal monument was the mausoleum to Humayun. Most notable of Akbar’s buildings was the palace-cum-fort complex at Fatehpuri Sikri. Native red sandstone was inlaid with white marble and all the surfaces were ornately carved on the outside and sumptuously painted inside. Extensive use was made of the low arches and bulbous domes that characterize the Mughal style during his period. Soon this style of architecture was used extensively by the nobles and common people.

With the firm establishment of the Mughal Empire, the Mughal architecture reached its zenith. At the end of Jahangir’s reign, the practice, of putting up buildings entirely of marble and decorating the walls with floral designs made of semiprecious stones was established. The use of this style of decoration was called ‘pietra dura’.

The crowning glory of Mughal architecture is the Taj Mahal built by Shah Jahan. Red Fort in Delhi is another great achievement.

Under the orthodox Aurangzeb, the Mughal Architecture saw its decline. Pearl Mosque in Delhi is his lone contribution.

The Mughal architecture incorporated many Indian styles, due to the religious tolerant nature of some Mughal emperors like Akbar. Another major influence in the architecture style was the construction of palaces and forts keeping in mind the hot climate of North India. The gardens, built by the Mughals, had flowing water streams, taking into consideration the hot weather. The buildings were also built in a manner to take advantage of the breeze.

The Mughal architectural style, greatly influenced the forts and palaces belonging to other kingdoms and provinces. This influence can be greatly seen in the construction of the famous Golden Temple of Amritsar. The temple is built on the arch and dome principle and incorporated many features of the Mughal traditions of architecture.

Ref: www.india9.com

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Babur (1526-30 A.D.), the founder of the Mughal dynasty in India, also made a modest beginning of the architectural style which was later developed, on a massive scale, by his grandson Akbar (1556-1605) and Akbar’s grandson Shah Jehan (1628-58). This dynasty is popularly called “MUGHAL’, though Babur descended as a Miranshahi-Timurid and, racially, he was a Chaghtai-Turk. Their architectural style, and other art styles, also bear the dynastic appellation : MUGHAL.

With its own constructional and ornamental techniques, norms and concepts, grown from a sound historico-cultural and geo-physical background, and a transparent evolutionary process, Mughal Architecture was a fully developed style and a perfect discipline, as none was prior to it, in medieval India. It had a time-span of 132 years, practically from 1526 to 1658, and Agra-Fatehpur Sikri, Lahore-Kashmir- Kabul, Delhi, Allahabad, Ajmer, Ahmedabad, Mandu and Burhanpur are its major centres. Nearly 400 monuments of this style have survived, including city-walls and gates, forts, palaces, tombs, mosques, hammams, gardens, minarets, tanks, step-wells, sarais, bridges, kos-minars and, of course, the Taj Mahal which marks that zenith of an art from where it could only decline.             

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Due to the scarcity of lumber, the two predominant building materials used in ancient Egypt were sun-baked mud brick and stone, mainly limestone, but also sandstone and granite in considerable quantities. From the Old Kingdom onward, stone was generally reserved for tombs and temples, while bricks were used even for royal palaces, fortresses, the walls of temple precincts and towns, and for subsidiary buildings in temple complexes.

Egypt houses were made out of mud collected from the Nile river. It was placed in molds and left to dry in the hot sun to harden for use in construction.

Many egyptian towns have disappeared because they were situated near the cultivated area of the Nile Valley and were flooded as the river bed slowly rose during the milennia, or the mud bricks of which they were built were used by peasants as fertilizer. Others are inaccessible, new buildings having been erected on ancient ones. Fortunately, the dry, hot climate of Egypt preserved some mud brick structures. Examples include the village Deir al-Madinah, the Middle Kingdom town at Kahun, and the fortresses at Buhen and Mirgissa. Also, many temples and tombs have survived because they were built on high ground unaffected by the Nile flood and were constructed of stone.

Thus, our understanding of ancient Egyptian architecture is based mainly on religious monuments, massive structures characterized by thick, sloping walls with few openings, possibly echoing a method of construction used to obtain stability in mud walls. In a similar manner, the incised and flatly modeled surface adornment of the stone buildings may have derived from mud wall ornamentation. Although the use of the arch was developed during the fourth dynasty, all monumental buildings are post and lintel constructions, with flat roofs constructed of huge stone blocks supported by the external walls and the closely spaced columns.

Exterior and interior walls, as well as the columns and piers, were covered with hieroglyphic and pictorial frescoes and carvings painted in brilliant colors. Many motifs of Egyptian ornamentation are symbolic, such as the scarab, or sacred beetle, the solar disk, and the vulture. Other common motifs include palm leaves, the papyrus plant, and the buds and flowers of the lotus. Hieroglyphs were inscribed for decorative purposes as well as to record historic events or spells.

Ancient Egyptian temples were aligned with astronomically significant events, such as solstices and equinoxes, requiring precise measurements at the moment of the particular event. Measurements at the most significant temples may have been ceremonially undertaken by the Pharaoh himself.

Ref: www.wikipedia.org

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Probably the most famous structure in all of Egypt, the Pyramids are still on of the worlds best architectural achievement, even though they were built many centuries ago. These structures can be as tall as 482 feet (147 m) high. The Pyramid towers over many other famous landmarks, including the Statue of Liberty.

The first true pyramid was build at saqqara for the king Zoser. It was called a step pyramid because of its step shape. The later pyramids were smooth sided, like the Great Pyramid at Giza, built for the king Khufu about 4,500 years ago.

The smooth sided pyramid was built from the Dynasty IV and on. They were built by first having men chisel the block of granite the way that they wanted it. The stonemasons used special rods to check that a stone block was cut accurately. Next, the blocks stayed in the quarry until the flood season. They did this so they could use barges to haul over the heavy granite blocks. Once the boast had arrived near the pyramid and unloaded the blocks, they were hauled up a ramp. Then, ropes and levers were used to maneuver the huge blocks into position. The overseer checked that every block was laid correctly. Once all of the granite blocks were placed in place, laborers rubbed the casing blocks with polishing stones until they would shine in the sun. The overseers used plump lines to check that the angle of the slope was correct.

As for the finishing touches, workers placed hieroglyphics around the pyramid as well as many statues. There were also a lot of bright and vibrant colored columns. There were also one or two large boats buried near the tomb so the king to have a peaceful sail over to the Next World.

As for the path that leads up to the pyramid, there was first the Valley Temple. When the king died, his body was first rowed across the Nile to the Valley Temple to be mummified. Next, there was the causeway. This was a covered processional way which came from the Valley Temple. The walls on the inside were decorated many times, and there were holes in the roof to provide light. At the end of the Causeway, there was the Mortuary Temple. This was built against the side of the pyramid. The Mortuary Temple was the place where priests made offerings to the king’s spirit every day for eternity. To the left of the Mortuary Temple, can be found the queen’s pyramid. Much smaller than the kings pyramid, this was where the king would bury his wife.

The number of granite blocks were enormous. There had to be a huge quarry to supply the huge demand. And of course, there were many accidents at the construction site. There were doctors on the site, but little helped for sprained or broken body parts. Eventually, the whole pyramid was built, and all of the sweat and toil payed off.

Ref: http://library.thinkquest.org

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The Sphinx is one of the best known monuments of Ancient Egyptian Architecture. Unusual to the form of most Egyptian pyramid structures, it stands as a symbol of the strength of the Ancient Necropolis of Giza and as a homage to the strength of the King. The Sphinx was originally commissioned by Kaphre (a son of Cheops), and was constructed from bedrock found within the Valley of Giza. The age of the Sphinx has been estimated to be roughly 4,636 years old and it dates from the time of the Fourth Dynasty. When construction began is not entirely known, the identity of the architect is not known either, though the alignment of the Sphinx with the Pyramid of Kaphre suggests a political affiliation.

Another unique feature of the Sphinx is the presence of paint residue which suggests that at one time the Sphinx was painted, in which case the head piece probably resembled the colorful head piece attire traditionally worn by the pharaohs of the time. The most notable features of the Sphinx, such as the nose and beard, have not withstood well over time. The nose was shot off during target practice by Turkish soldiers and the Sphinx’s beard has entirely been worn away by wind and sand erosion.

In addition to the usual wear and tear of time, erosion has taken a great toll upon the sphinx. Over the years, the Sphinx has been buried by sand numerous times, causing the softer stone of the monument to be worn away (hence the rippling effect of layered stone). To keep the monument within it’s past and present shape, the Ancient Egyptians from the Old Kingdom into the new, and even in the time of the modern Twentieth Century, have added to the monument to maintain it structurally. The Sphinx has also had to be dug out from the desert sand numerous times throughout the centuries. The continually digging out of the Sphinx, is evidenced by the Dream Stella (a stone engraved with hieroglyphs) in between the paws of the Sphinx. The Dream Stella tells the story of Thutmosis IV, who fell asleep below the Sphinx and had a dream that the Sphinx told him to dig the monument out of the sand. In return, the Sphinx promised Thutmosis IV, that when he cleared the Sphinx he would become king of Egypt. The Sphinx has since been cleared most recently in 1905.

Ref: http://www.mnsu.edu

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There were two main styles (or “orders”) of early Greek architecture, the Doric and the Ionic. These names were used by the Greeks themselves, and reflected their belief that the styles descended from the Dorian and Ionian Greeks of the Dark Ages, but this is unlikely to be true. The Doric style was used in mainland Greece and spread from there to the Greek colonies in Italy. The Ionic style was used in the cities of Ionia (now the west coast of Turkey) and some of the Aegean islands. The Doric style was more formal and austere, the Ionic was more relaxed and decorative. The more ornate Corinthian style was a later development of the Ionic. These styles are best known through the three orders of column capitals, but there are differences in most points of design and decoration between the orders.

Most surviving Greek buildings, such as the Parthenon and the Temple of Hephaestus in Athens, are Doric. The Erechtheum and the small temple of Athena Nike on the Acropolis are Ionic however. The Ionic order became dominant in the Hellenistic period, since its more decorative style suited the aesthetic of the period better than the more restrained Doric. Records show that the evolution of the Ionic order was resisted by many Greek States, as they claimed it represented the dominance of Athens. Some of the best surviving Hellenistic buildings, such as the Library of Celsus, can be seen in Turkey, at cities such as Ephesus and Pergamum. But in the greatest of Hellenistic cities, Alexandria in Egypt, almost nothing survives, so greek art and architecture was at its apex during this time.

Roof  Tiles

The earliest finds of roof tiles in archaic Greece are documented from a very restricted area around Corinth (Greece), where fired tiles began to replace thatched roofs at two temples of Apollo and Poseidon between 700-650 BC. Spreading rapidly, roof tiles were within fifty years in evidence for a large number of sites around the Eastern Mediterranean, including Mainland Greece, Western Asia Minor, Southern and Central Italy. Early roof tiles showed an S-shape, with the pan and cover tile forming one piece. They were rather bulky, weighing around 30 kg apiece. Being more expensive and labour-intensive to produce than thatchet, their introduction has been explained with their greatly enhanced fire resistance which gave desired protection to the costly temples. The spread of the roof tile technique has to be viewed in connection with the simultaneous rise of monumental architecture in Archaic Greece. Only stone walls, which were replacing the earlier mud brick and wood walls, were strong enough to support the weight of a tiled roof. As a side-effect, it has been assumed that the new stone and tile construction also ushered in the end of ‘Chinese roof’ (Knickdach) construction in Greek architecture, as they made the need for an extended roof as rain protection for the mudbrick walls obsolete

Ref: www.wikipedia.org

Common materials of Greek architecture were wood, used for supports and roof beams; plaster, used for sinks and bathtubs; unbaked brick, used for walls, especially for private homes; limestone and marble, used for columns, walls, and upper portions of temples and public buildings; terracotta, used for roof tiles and ornaments; and metals, especially bronze, used for decorative details. Architects of the Archaic and Classical periods used these building materials to construct five simple types of buildings: religious, civic, domestic, funerary, or recreational.

Around 600 BC, the wooden columns of the old Temple of Hera at Olympia underwent a material transformation, known as “petrification”, in which they were replaced by stone columns. By degrees, other parts of the temple were “petrified.”

Most of our knowledge of Greek architecture is of the late archaic period (550 – 500 BC), the Periclean age (450 – 430 BC), and the early to pure classical period (430 – 400 BC). Greek examples are considered alongside Hellenistic and Roman periods (since Roman architecture heavily copied Greek), and late written sources such as Vitruvius (1st century). This results in a strong bias towards temples, the only buildings which survive in large numbers

Like Greek painting and sculpture, Greek Architecture in the first half of classical antiquity was not “art for art’s sake” in the modern sense. The architect was a craftsman employed by the state or a wealthy private client. No distinction was made between the architect and the building contractor. The architect designed the building, hired the laborers and craftsmen who built it, and was responsible for both its budget and its timely completion. He did not enjoy any of the lofty status accorded to modern architects of public buildings. Even the names of architects are not known before the 5th century. An architect like Iktinos, who designed the Parthenon, who would today be seen as a genius, was treated in his lifetime as no more than a very valuable master tradesman.

Ref: http://en.wikipedia.org

Architecture is a process of trial and error, and later improvisation or replication of a successful trial. What is termed Vernacular architecture continues to be produced in many parts of the world. Indeed, vernacular buildings make up most of the built world that people experience every day.

Architecture is the art of building in which human requirements and construction materials are related so as to furnish practical use as well as an aesthetic solution, thus differing from the pure utility of engineering construction.

• Time is also an important factor in architecture, since a building is usually comprehended in a succession of experiences rather than all at once. In most architecture there is no one vantage point from which the whole structure can be understood. The analysis of building types provides an insight into cultures and eras. These styles often reflect the needs of a specific way of life.
• Climate, methods of labor, available materials, and financial resources all impose their dictates. Each of the greater styles has been aided by the discovery of new construction methods. Once developed, a method survives tenaciously, giving way only when social changes or new building techniques have reduced it. That evolutionary process is exemplified by the history of modern architecture, which developed from the first uses of structural iron and steel in the mid-19th century.

Green architecture may have many of these characteristics:

• Ventilation systems designed for efficient heating and cooling
• Energy-efficient lighting and appliances
• Water-saving plumbing fixtures
• Landscapes planned to maximize passive solar energy
• Minimal harm to the natural habitat
• Alternate power sources such as solar power or wind power
• Non-synthetic, non-toxic materials
• Locally-obtained woods and stone
• Responsibly-harvested woods
• Adaptive reuse of older buildings
• Use of recycled architectural salvage
• Efficient use of space

While most green buildings do not have all of these features, the highest goal of green architecture is to be fully sustainable.

• The Magney House: Energy-conserving home by Australian architect Glenn Murcutt
• LEAFHouse: A vine-covered solar house designed by students from the University of Maryland
• Katrina Cottage: Low-cost and energy-efficient emergency pre-fab housing
• Solar-Powered Victorian: A historic inn with high-tech photovoltaic panels
• Earth House: This home in Loreto Bay, Mexico is made with compressed earth blocks

Source: www.about.com

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Computer-aided design & drafting services are witnessing a boom around the world, and Indian companies are at the forefront

Drafting is the art of creating accurate representations of objects for technical, architectural and engineering needs. In earlier times, drafting used to be entirely by hand, which meant that it was time-consuming, costly and with unavoidable errors. Today, computer-aided design and drafting services (CADD) have changed all that. Almost all engineering/ technical companies rely on such computer-aided design drafting services today.

Drafting is a specialized skill that involves preparing technical drawings and plans, which are used in the fields of architecture, industrial design and plant design. Today, with companies preferring to concentrate on their core business, the business of computer-aided drafting services is booming. Especially in the West, companies prefer to outsource drafting services to other countries like India, taking advantage of the lower costs. The result has been a boom in outsourcing.

There are many specialties in drafting services. These include aeronautical, architectural, civil, electrical, electronics, mechanical, and other types of drafting services. Electronic drafting may involve wiring diagrams, circuit board assembly diagrams, layout drawings, schematic diagrams used to manufacture, install and repair electronic devices etc. Architectural drafting may involve cross-sectional plans, elevations roof framing and foundation plans, reflected ceiling plans, raster to vector conversion, survey-based site plans and landscape plans, interior plans, 3D views of residential and multi-stored houses, 3D walkthroughs etc.

As we mentioned earlier, almost all this kind of work is done through computer-aided design and drafting (CADD systems). These allow drafters to create and store drawings electronically so that they can be viewed, printed, or programmed directly into automated manufacturing systems.

CADD has brought about huge efficiencies and reduced costs for companies. Earlier, when there was a change in plans, drafters had to draw all over again. Today, CADD enables changes in a matter of minutes.

Indian outsourcing companies have had considerable success in attracting business from the West and other developed countries. India has a vast pool of trained architects and draftsmen who can provide high-quality drafting services at a fraction of the cost.

Typical of such companies is the Ahmedabad based draftingsimplified.com, which has seen rapid growth in business turnover and profits in the ten years since it began operations. The company has a growing client list that includes companies in Europe, North America, Australia and Asia. The company’s range of services include 2D and 3D CAD conversion, Cad Drafting, 3D CAD Modeling and 3D rendering services.

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Source: http://www.aabsys.com/website/media-center/articles/drafting-a-new-world.htm